Aid & Ecology in Africa

Africa is a diverse continent in climate, vegetation and also people. It used to be a land of potential but was ruined by man’s influence. It was said that the settlers who descended upon Africa some 200 years ago caused radical change there. The natural balance of the environment was spoilt, and today the economies in Africa are the weakest in the world and the effects of the population because of this poverty has adverse effects on the environment.

Today, only 1% of Africa’s wildlife remains, which testifies of Africa’s former glory and greatness. The greatest disturbance to the natural environment is desertification. It is when savannah grassland is transformed into arid desert-like land. Although many factors causing desertification are natural, like drought and soil erosion, man’s impact on the environment can sometimes be harmful.

In this entry, I would like to examine how foreign aid is not always helpful and how this can be improved.

Although aid is poured into Africa frequently, the evidence that aid can transform the environmental situation and lift people out of poverty is sometimes unconvincing, because it can only speed up a process that is already happening. Usually, we assume that money can change things. But if aid could make Africa prosperous, it would have done so by now.

Despite nearly a trillion dollars of aid since the 1960s when Africa gained independence, much of Africa is worse off now than it was then. That is because much of the aid given was spent by outsiders without any direct consultation with Africans and a little understanding of Africa’s needs.

Africa has rich resources but is a victim of bad politics, and some African nation states do not have effective governments. As such, it is difficult to deliver education about the environment to Africans without working through those governments.

Some of the African nations like Tanzania and Uganda receive about 50% of their budgets from aid, which makes them even more dependent on Western aid donors than they were in colonial times. And in times of economic crisis, some countries may cut back on their aid for Africa, and in turn, the environment and people suffer even more. Because of this aid, Western aid donors are able to control the agenda, for instance, taking ownership of the programme.

Much of the aid is spent in the form of consultancies and goods, for example genetically modified food to solve the problems caused by famine. For Africa, this breeds dependence and undermines self reliance. Eventually, this may breed resentment.

Ultimately, there is no short cut to development, and problems can only be genuinely solved when Africans themselves bring change to their country. I believe a way to start is through the development of a state where taxes are raised and where they are spent productively for the countries to develop. Today, a lack of capacity by the government and corruption prevent basic services from being delivered to citizens.

Giving aid feels good but there are actually other ways to help Africa. Policies that promote a fairer system of trade should be pursued. Agricultural subsidies that distort prices, therefore allowing cheap food to be dumped in Africa should be ended as it is ruining farmers there.

Gender Perspective in Energy Sector

The use of renewable energy has an important role in both developing and developed countries. There are different implications of the wider use of renewable energy resources for women and men. It has been shown, however, that women have an important role to play in sustainable energy development.

In this entry, I would like to examine why women need renewable energy and why a gender perspective is relevant in the energy sector.

Renewable energy addresses women’s needs in cooking energy that is less labour intensive, convenient and safer. For this to take place, a broad view of the entire household’s fuel cycle needs to be taken into consideration. A large portion of women’s economic contribution goes unpaid and is often unrecognised and unpaid, therefore resulting in less attention in the development of technology in improving the work of women. Renewable energy addresses their labour saving needs such as water pumping, grain grinding and transport.

Renewable energy development can also address women’s needs in their livelihoods and income. This improves the safety in working in energy intensive industries. Lighting is also important in allowing women to work more productively in the evening in home industries.

As modern lifestyles become more rushed, renewable energy programmes need to involve women because they influence the direct and indirect energy consumption of the home, and in turn play a part in the education of the children in energy conservation and consumption habits.

There is a stereotype that women are not capable of building and operating sophisticated technologies. The woman’s role in technology has often been overlooked, and their ability to innovate may be a rich source in improving renewable energy technologies, and can increase the confidence of women.

Women are increasingly adopting non-traditional work roles in the energy sector, due to the increasing education levels and the number of female headed households. Hence, non-traditional roles for women can also be considered in renewable energy projects. Documentation on women in renewable energy activities have been limited and more information is needed.

The gender perspective recognises that some issues are gender specific. Men and women play different roles and face different constraints. A gender perspective ensures that women receive benefits from the development of renewable technology, and that they are able to contribute to the development of it.

In the conventional energy industry, it is not true that women have been excluded intentionally or that their energy related activities are overlooked. The fact is that they have been defined out of the energy sector, and only recently, energy has been defined as large scale, capital intensive technology that is run by experts for economic growth. It is not viewed as small scale or management intensive activities done by women using their own natural resources and strength for small scale income activities. Women have been largely ignored in energy planning, but I believe that this is slowly changing.

Today, although current gender perspectives mark a shift away from viewing women as passive recipients of science and technology, women are merely getting into the mainstream. They are seen, but are not active participants in the innovation process. With women getting into the innovation process, needs of the poor and women can be easily met.

Currently, it is a fact that more women are employed in energy professions, because of the increased access to science education, and changes to policies have ensured equal opportunities among men and women. However, in most energy institutions, the participation of women is still small, and women may still face obstacles in the male dominated energy sector.

Therefore, I believe it is important to consider gender in the developing of renewable energy. Without their involvement, renewable energy projects can become inappropriate. Women are generally the main users of household energy in developing countries, and they influence the family’s use of energy.

China’s One Child Policy

China’s one-child policy is one of the most controversial social policies of all time, because of the issues and the way the policy has been implemented. Some negative social consequences have also arisen from this policy. However, there is general public acceptance despite the many critiques about it. In 2008, a survey undertaken by the Pew Research Centre showed that 75% of the Chinese population support the one child policy.

One of the questions many ask is whether the policy has been fair to Chinese citizens. But it is true that China faces a population crisis, and I feel the government cannot be blamed for taking such extreme measures. Drastic times call for drastic measures. But I feel that there are ways to achieve a sustainable population size without implementing such a drastic measure, for example, India. India has achieved population sustainability without state coercion.

One issue of the one child policy is the violation of basic human rights. There have been forced sterilizations, abortions and even infanticides. There have been many horror stories of how people were forced to abort their babies, although the use of physical force on women is outlawed in China.

However, China’s economic might could be developed as a result of the family planning programme, since investors recognise that children can be costly. When their numbers are reduced, it frees capital into the Chinese economy. The economic success of China was so successful and powerful that in 1998 and 1999, financial restrictions were imposed to moderate an overheating economy.

Some studies have shown that in the last two decades, more males were born as a result, and the sex ratio in China became imbalanced. As a result of the imbalanced sex ratio, there were fewer married men and marriage was also seen as a socialising force. I feel that this policy does not improve gender equality, but worsens it.

Also, the crime rates increased as a result of the policy. The Chinese government has also recognised this problem of a higher crime rate as a result of the one child policy and has been trying to undo the damage. A softer tone in its propaganda was adopted. In the past, abortion was encouraged, but today, posters encourage family planning and that both boys and girls are treasures.

I believe it is time for the one-child policy to be phased out. It is successful to a certain extent as China’s birth rate has been lowered dramatically and annual population growth is less than 1%. Economic growth has also multiplied and more women are brought into the workforce. But the downside is the demographic nightmare and the severe labour shortage that China will experience due to the ageing population and the lack of children to provide for millions of elderly people.

It has also been said that the Chinese society is increasingly influenced by consumerism, from the various articles done about the “little emperors”, the only child in the family where parents shower lavish care on them. All the generations of ambitions are focused on this one child. Most of them will grow up not knowing how to care for other people or siblings, and this might create a self centred society.

In light of the recent Sichuan quake, many families have lost their only child, and this could encourage the government to phase out the one-child policy. To outlive your offspring is a terrible prospect, and for many families in China, there will be no more children for those families who have lost their only child.

This phasing out could be done slowly, as time is needed to develop China’s social and medical infrastructure to cope with the rising birth rate, should this policy be eliminated. Issues like the rising ageing population have to be dealt with too, for example, the provision of elderly care and social infrastructure. Removing these laws immediately would only undo all the good that was done by the policy. In about nine months, there would be a flood of babies born in China.

Tourism in Singapore

 Tourism is an important industry in Singapore, in terms of employment, business activity and an income generator. The Singapore Tourism Board is continuously looking at potential avenues to make Singapore a competitive destination. Tourism development followed on the heels of urban redevelopment that was undertaken in the city, where old buildings had to make way for the new.

 

In this entry, I would like to examine how monuments are used in the production of a cultural identity in an urban landscape like Singapore. These monuments and landmarks are often found in an urban environment and in a prominent location, and are often very visible by the public.

 

These landmarks are viewed as ‘signatures of power’ (Lasswell, 1979), with the intention of amazing the viewer and evoking emotions about the state. In developing the nation state, there is a need to develop and assert the national identity and emphasise the belief in the existence and legitimacy of the nation.

 

Also, the creation of national symbols and traditions create a sense of the nation, and the ruling party uses the Merlion, for example, to create a sense of the nation. Tourism is also reduced to a few recognizable characteristics. In Singapore’s case, it is the Merlion, orchids, and Sentosa. In this entry, I will focus on the Merlion being used to produce a unified identity in Singapore.

 

The Merlion reflects the government’s intention to offer a symbol which transcends all time, space and ethnic divides. It is however, questionable as to whether the Merlion has been successful in conveying this sense of history and identity. The history behind this monument can be easily forgotten but the emblem of it is not.

 

According to the Ministry of Trade and Industry, tourists want to see an important landmark that they can identify with. It is often compared to the national symbols of other countries, like Paris which has its Eiffel Tower, and Rome which has the Colliseum. The MTI was quoted as saying that an identification landmark is a cost effective way of projecting the image of Singapore as it can be easily put on advertising flyers. (MTI, 1984: 26)

 

However, I think that the Merlion seems more like an effective marketing tool for tourists, and has little ties with Singaporeans. Even the MTI has admitted that it is a cost effective way of promoting Singapore. Other national symbols have been commercialized too, and here we see many postcards and souvenirs of the Merlion, the national orchid and even Raffles Hotel. The STB sees this as a way to draw attention to the country.

 

These fits in with Boorstin’s (1992:103) description of tourist attractions as places with little significance for the inward lives of people, but are sold as commodities to tourists.

Also, I feel that the Merlion was created by planners for the purpose of tourism, and was not evolved organically. It is somewhat funny that a country with such strong economic success has ties with a strange beast. But perhaps, over time, the Merlion will be capable of evoking a strong local affinity.

 

Boorstin (1992) has argued that over time, even ‘pseudo events’ like staged dances and cultural practices become authentic and permanent. I remember a National Day celebration where the theme of the parade revolved round some mythical creatures in search for a land. The perpetual stressing on the Merlion’s role in Singapore’s history may authenticate this image in people’s minds.

 

As the Merlion is located in the heart of the city and also in Sentosa, the production of myth around it takes place in two sites in the city. It has often been associated with family outings to the Esplanade areas, and also provides a romantic backdrop for couples in their wedding pictures. It has, over time, garnered local support and affinity.  It is not surprising, therefore, if the Merlion will become synonymous with Singapore’s identity as an island state, in the future.

 

 

Bibliography

Lasswell, D. The Signatures of Power. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transactions Books, 1979

Boorstin, D. The Image. A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. New York: Vintage, 1992

 

 

National Identity in Singapore

Many developing nations in Southeast Asia are confronted with the need to create a new national identity, due to the ethnic and cultural diversity present in the societies. The conflict faced by these new multi ethnic states, like Singapore, is the conflict of one’s loyalty to the ethnic community, and also loyalty to the wider community.

The period after Singapore’s separation from Malaysia in 1965 saw much discussion about the Singaporean identity. There was not, in the 1960s and 70s, a common Singaporean identity but there should be. It was thought that the Singaporean identity would not emerge spontaneously but had to be created by policies and campaigns.

The Singaporean identity seemed to focus on meritocracy, where Singaporeans used their talents successfully in the global community yet be able to stay true to one’s roots and Asian values. Singaporeans are to be modern and cosmopolitan and yet retain Asian traditions.

An example of how language is used as a tool to create the Singapore identity is the example of the Speak Good Mandarin campaign. It is not a new campaign, and I feel that it is not really about the language per se, but is really about preserving the Chinese culture.

The government gives the reasons that as Chinese, we need to have a sense of our roots and that the rich Chinese heritage should be protected, and that it will be difficult for the Chinese culture to continue without the language. Also, the values that are inculcated as a result of that culture are encouraged, for example, Confucian values have worked well in Singapore all these years.

However, there are some assumptions made by the ruling party here in promoting Mandarin, and that is the assumption of Chinese culture as unchanging, and the need for it to be preserved. But the fact is culture is evolving all the time, and there might even be a new language in the future. The other assumption is that if we did not keep our Chinese culture, we would be losing our own culture and eventually has no culture at all. However, I believe that everyone has a culture, and the emphasis on this campaign elevates the Chinese culture above other cultures.

There is a great difficulty of reconciling the fact of being Chinese and also a Singaporean. To be a Singaporean, the government has encouraged us to have blended identities yet remain separate. What I mean is this: Each race is expected to preserve their own traditions, and tolerance of other races keeps this in check. The Chinese will forever remain Chinese and the Malay will remain Malay forever.

There is this distinction that keeps every race apart, yet at the same time, to be Singaporean is to be this cosmopolitan person with a blend of various cultural influences brought by the different migrant communities. The leaders of the ruling party have often rejected the ideology of a melting pot, where all the races were to retain their distinct languages, religions and traditions.

This campaign alienates other ethnic minorities and strengthens race consciousness among Singaporeans, mainly because this campaign focuses mainly on the Chinese.

The general language policy of Singapore can be described as multilingualism, which states that all four official languages are to be treated as equal. However, it is arguable whether these languages are equal. English has become a unifying language on an economic level. According to Stewart (1968), language policies of some nation states fall into two categories. The first is to eliminate linguistic diversity, and assimilating all ethnic minorities into a national culture. The second is to be tolerant of cultural diversity and reflects cultural pluralism, which is adopted in Singapore today.

Although English was to function as the lingua franca in many areas, the challenge here is that while it is important to have attachments to one’s ethnic tradition, this may hinder the development of a new identity. Therefore, bilingualism as a policy was used to provide some cohesiveness.

 The other Mother Tongues like Mandarin, Malay and Tamil are languages thought to instil values in Singaporeans and are called ‘moral compasses’. With the stabilisation from Asian values, a Singaporean would be able to select the positive influences of Western culture and be able to reject negative influences. The theory of culture and identity led to the efforts to teach mother tongues in schools and to use them to further moral education.

By maintaining economic development through the use of English, the role of language in Singapore is to create an attachment among Singaporeans to the country and at the same time, retain the traditional values through the use of Mother Tongues.

 

 

Nation Building Strategies in Singapore

 This entry is a short summary of Singapore’s national development from being a colony to a young nation, and some strategies used by the ruling political party for nation building. After independence, the ruling party created a sense of national identity among the largely immigrant population. Through policies and different programmes, the idea of a shared national identity was put into place.

Singapore used to be under the British colonial rule and had a previous attachment to Malaya. Therefore, in order to build the Singapore identity, previous attachments had to be given up before the state could be imagined as being tied to the boundaries of the territory.

As Singapore used to be an immigrant state, the different histories and cultures of the immigrants had to be reduced such that the people could feel a sense a shared history and destiny. That was the foundation upon which a nation could be formed.

The People’s Action Party (PAP) marked the beginning of united political power and the process of nation building. When the new government came into power, they were struck with many problems like unemployment, poverty and the lack of education. The PAP gathered the people together, with its calls of national loyalty, and the need to achieve economic progress and racial harmony.

From then on, there has never been another political party that has ruled Singapore. There  has been a link of legitimacy to performance and performance to state building and political capability.

Economic development is also used as a nation building strategy. The most powerful ideological tool used by the PAP government is the promise of economic prosperity and the improvement in the standard of living. Their legitimacy to rule has been based much on this reason, and many of the policies formed centre around this factor.

Multiracialism and multilingualism are also used as a nation building strategy. The government has emphasized the need to maintain racial harmony, and there was no longer the problem of having a divided notion of the nation. People were placed in defined racial categories. Geoffrey Benjamin (1976), argued that multiracialism constructed notions of “ethnicity” and “culture” as an unchangeable fact of life and thus maintains the idea of “race” as a category of identity.

Another area of how the PAP uses government policy to build nationalism is the compulsory national service (NS) that all male citizens and permanent residents have to enlist in when they turn 18. Although this is for national defence, the other goal of NS is also to bring together young Singaporeans from all walks of lives and with different racial backgrounds, to enhance the building of the nation.

There are many other government policies where national identity is promoted. In schools, students are taught national education programmes. Even in the previous National Day Rally, married couples were encouraged to have more children and these national campaigns promote nation building as the government plays the “parent” in encouraging the people to have certain kinds of habits and values.

Very few Singaporeans question the PAP’s ability to lead. By providing economic incentives, political stability and social security, Singapore has implemented these polices unchallenged. The path taken by the PAP towards nation-building, according to Chan and Evers (1978) was to create an identity of “ideology of pragmatism” which was consistent with the survival as a small nation with limited resources, and that the Singaporean identity had to be built by persuading Singaporeans to look towards to the future together.

War (Child Soldiers)

An aspect of military activities that occur around the world is the use of child soldiers in the military. Children are favoured because the easily available small arms make it easier for children to use weapons. Certain groups may reach out to children because they are innocent and more impressionable. This vulnerability is exploited, and many children grow up knowing only violence.

 

This is a growing global problem because it is difficult to demobilise and reintegrate these children into the society, as they are often severely traumatized. According to the UNICEF, recent developments in warfare have increased the dangers for children. It is estimated that 2 million children have been killed; 12 million left homeless and 10 million psychologically traumatised.

 

Myanmar’s regime has the largest number of child soldiers in the world, and thousands of children serve in the national army, many of whom are picked up from the market streets in a recruitment drive to tackle the high rates of desertion and a lack of willing volunteers. This number has increased since the cyclone has separated many children from their families. It is one of the world’s worst perpetrators of child recruitment, as identified by the UN Secretary General.

 

The UN Security Council was created some two years ago to address abuses against children in armed conflict. The group can apply sanctions against violators like Myanmar, that repeatedly engage in child recruitment in the army.

 

However, it was found that the Security Council did not even acknowledge that Myanmar’s army recruited children. No sanctions were applied and the Security Council was looking forward to cooperating with the regime.

 

This approach was notably different from the approach used on the Sri Lank’s Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, which was much tougher. The Tamil Tigers were threatened with sanctions should they continue to recruit child soldiers for their civil war, and a six month deadline was given. This tough approach worked and the number of children recruited by the Tamil Tigers dropped from 1,090 to 26 in 2008.

 

In 2004, the military government also established a committee to prevent the recruitment of child soldiers, but Human Rights Watch’s investigation found that little action was taken to end child recruitment, and reports of child soldier use were repeatedly denied. It was found that Myanmar’s diplomatic supporters are China and Russia, and are also main arms suppliers to Myanmar.

 

Why is it there such cover up regarding this issue? Human Rights Watch says the factor is China. Myanmar’s record of child soldier recruitment was not often discussed due to China preventing the Security Council from talking about it. According to a recent article by the Human Rights Watch, China’s representatives have rejected efforts to pressure Myanmar to address the use of child soldiers.

 

China has a close relationship with Myanmar, and views Myanmar as a strategic ally, and has provided economic support to keep Myanmar’s economy afloat. Many roads, bridges, airport facilities and telecommunication networks are built with China’s help.

 

This brings to mind about the recent uproar regarding China’s human rights record. This could be yet another issue that shows China’s failure to uphold some standards, for example, protection against children. Myanmar’s regime has even less incentive to end the recruitment of child soldiers without any pressure from the UN Security Council.

 

Crime

The world is moving into a new phenomenon of the simultaneous globalization of crime, terror and corruption. This same phenomenon can be found almost everywhere, in the poorest countries of Africa, and even in the prosperous West. Because of corruption, crime and terror groups operate at the borders of Latin America, and also in Australia, Asia and North America.

 

Today, globalised crime networks work with terrorists and both are able to carry out their activities and goals successfully, and this is also aided by corruption. It is no longer separate. The idea that criminals only engage in crime to profit and terrorist groups only engage in crime to get their political motives across is not true, in this new age.

 

For example, during the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Centre in USA, the same language school that provided some of the 9/11 hijackers their visa documents also provided them for a trafficking ring. The trafficking ring engaged in stolen identities that were used to facilitate terrorist activities.   

 

Terrorism has changed over the past century, and has become more severe and taken on a more massive scale. In 1993, there were only 45 terrorist acts registered, but in 1998, there were 117. Organised crime groups, with its ability to get resources and materials through corruption, could get access to high tech means of terrorism. There are 23 countries that secretly or openly possess nuclear weapons, although that number is believed to be higher, and nuclear weapons could soon be used to blackmail governments.

 

The intensification of terrorism in the current century is linked to the process of globalization. This is the paradox of globalization. With its positive benefits come the negative impacts as well, for example, the widening of social inequalities and poverty.

 

For almost a hundred years, the Russians, for example, have been unable to break away from poverty although they have great territorial, economic and physical capacities and natural resources. This inability to produce wealth formed the basis explaining the current crime problems in Russia. The frustrations felt by the citizens provided a foundation for aggression, violence and terrorism.

 

Also, following the fall of the Soviet Union, many former government workers and businessmen were out of work and turned to crime.

 

Organised crime still controls many parts of Russia’s economy, and many businessmen today still faced interference from criminals and corrupt government officials, and is almost a ‘fact-of-life’ in Russia. 50,000 companies in Russia are controlled by organized crime groups and these groups control about 40% of Russia’s gross national product.

 

Organised crime groups have also penetrated into the state, and have provided protection, employment and social services that are no longer available from the government.

 

Terrorists and criminals move people, money and commodities through a world where the increasing flows of people and money provide a cover for their activities. Terrorists and transnational crime groups used globalization to perpetuate their acts and to avoid detection.

 

International organized crime has globalised its activities to take advantage of attractive labour and raw material markets to do illegal businesses. Terrorists have also globalised, taking advantage of the fact that they can now recruit globally and be supported logistically and financially.

 

With the end of the Cold War, there has been a great impact on the rise of transnational crime. This is also impacted by the improvements in technology. Criminals and terrorists can now exploit the Internet to execute their activities. For example, the 9/11 terrorists used computers to send messages to one another and to buy airline tickets. Al-Qaeda terrorists have also used the media and the Internet to perpetuate their agenda.

 

Free markets and a decline in state intervention are also factors that have led to the expansion of crime.

 

What can be done about this changing nature of crime and terrorism? For one, I believe that perceptions of crime have to be changed first. Crime is often viewed as an unimportant issue to terrorism. After the 9/11 attacks, resources have been shifted away from transnational crime to fighting terrorism. Perceptions of how criminals are only motivated by profit and terrorists are only motivated by their political agendas need to be changed to be able to deal with this problem.

 

The intersection of crime, terrorism and corruption in the global environment also needs to be addressed. These problems are linked to the social inequalities in countries and perhaps, the lack of opportunities. More jobs need to be created so that some farmers are not only dependent on drug cultivation to support their families.

 

Countries also need to share their intelligence in order to fight crime and terrorism together, to be successful in disrupting any potential terrorist activity.

Gender & Inequality

The issue of gender inequality has been talked about for decades. I believe inequality in employment is one of the most pressing issues today.

 

To get to the root of the problem, one must examine the sociological factors that cause women to have a much more difficult time in getting job opportunities, wages and benefits as their male counterparts, especially in the case of Singapore. Another reason I would like to examine is the tendency for men and women to be in different occupations.

 

Occupation segregation may not necessarily mean there is discrimination, and could be due to reasons such as the differences in educational attainment. There is a preference among females for ‘soft’ subjects like social science rather than technical courses like engineering. These educational choices determine the kinds of occupation one is likely to undertake and also the salary that they will receive.

 

Although the traditional roles of men and women in the family have changed a lot over the years, most women still take nurturing role of children, while the men work. Sometimes, due to family responsibilities, women may be forced out of the labour force temporarily, and may tend to choose jobs that do not penalize her that heavily for leaving the labour force. Employers may tend to hire more men because women are more likely to leave the labour force.

 

Of course, occupation segregation could also be due to discrimination, when people of equal capabilities are not given equal opportunities in job promotions, or salaries. In Singapore, where equal education opportunities are given to every citizen, and where meritocracy is practiced, this can be very discouraging to men and women alike.

 

Women could be discriminated against for occupations like managerial positions, or trades that do not fit the employer’s perceptions of female workers. Consumer prejudice against a certain gender may also exclude workers from some service jobs.

 

However, in Singapore, the number of females in professional and technical jobs has increased over the years, due to the improvement in women’s educational profile.

 

There remains the paradox for the working women in Singapore. Women are called to be productive at work and at home. There are policies that encourage women to work, and there are also policies that encourage women to have more children because of the declining birth rate.

 

We want modern career women who have successful jobs and are able to earn money for their families, but at the same time, we want wives and mothers to stay home to take care of the family and add stability to the society. The dual – career family has become more of a necessity in Singapore, than a choice, due to high costs of living. The educational attainment of women has also led them to seek fulfillment in the labour force. This causes the women to be overburdened when they have to return home to continue her role in the family.

 

Women’s work may suffer unless there are priorities by the various companies and government policies to help resolve the paradox caused by work and family. These arrangements include working part time and from home. In 1997, only 57% of Singapore women aged 40 to 49 years old were in the labour force. Of 4,600 firms surveyed, only 9 firms practiced flexitime. Only 26 firms allowed employees to work away from the office. This shows that firms in Singapore were more motivated towards operational gain than the employee’s welfare.

 

In the professional world, female managers and executives are still under represented, although there are equal opportunities for education. They also face corporate and psychological barriers. There are still gender stereotypes and certain corporate structure and culture than can stop a woman from climbing up the corporate ladder.

 

Certain perceptions towards women in the workforce, and even corporate policies have to change to reduce gender inequality. However, this gap has been narrowed due to increasing educational achievements and also a general awareness by the Singapore government to reduce this inequality.

 

What is the role of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and has it been successful in achieving its goals? Why? What’s the future of the WTO?

What is the role of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and has it been successful in achieving its goals? Why? What’s the future of the WTO?

Globalisation is the move towards interdependence between nations, organizations and people. There are many global institutions that facilitate globalisation and their roles are to regulate and monitor international exchange to ensure that there is co-operation in areas like finance, aid, peace keeping and politics on a global scale.

 

It was believed that a certain structure and framework was needed to prevent the economic policies that contributed to the 1930 Great Depression. However, I will focus only on the World Trade Organisation (WTO) for this entry.

 

The WTO deals with the rules of trade between nations. It was created to supervise and liberalise international trade. Its role in the global market is to negotiate and implement new trade agreements. It functions as an international court to resolve trade disputes. Currently, the WTO has 153 members, which represents more than 95% of world trade.

 

In light of all these, I would like to examine how the WTO has been effective. Countries join the WTO for many reasons such as to increase trade and exports. Through the WTO, two countries, for example, can experience improved trade. If Country A is a producer of rice, and country B is a producer of coffee, both countries can trade and exchange their goods, and citizens benefit.

 

The presence of trade agreements, which usually involve reciprocal benefits, for example, exchanges or tax cuts on the exchange of goods is a reason why countries are encouraged to negotiate these agreements. Countries that have negotiated trade agreements get access to foreign markets, and this facilitates growth and benefits the economy. Countries also get to save on resources when they pay lower prices for goods exchanged.

 

Despite the benefits of being a member of the WTO, some critics say that the smaller countries in WTO have little influence in decision making – the most influential nations in the WTO focus on commercial interests of profit making companies.

 

About 80 countries have in the WTO have per capita incomes lower than they were in a decade ago, and the numbers of people living in poverty especially in sub Saharan Africa has continued to grow.

 

For example, the United States’ attempt to ban shrimp caught using equipment that were harmful to endangered sea turtles has been ruled as an illegal act by the WTO, thus causing the US to change its decision. National laws like these are considered as detrimental to trade, and countries are forced to abolish laws like these.

 

The question remains: why do governments still want to be members of the WTO then?

Despite the controversy, WTO membership has grown steadily, and currently, 30 countries are holding observer status and are waiting to be members. Perhaps countries still benefit from joining the WTO.  WTO aims to be non discriminating and transparent. A small country can enjoy the benefits that WTO grants to its members. Smaller countries can also join alliances with larger countries to increase their bargaining power.

 

I believe to make the WTO more relevant to the citizens of the world, there should be a complete change of the WTO’s policies. There should be a moving away from serving the interests of large corporations, and promote environmental pollution. This is sustainable growth, and is a remedy for poverty. It must also attempt to change people’s perceptions of the WTO, and redefine itself as a development institution. Many people believe that it is simply an institution used by the rich to make decisions favourable for them.

 

The WTO should focus on maintaining its original agreements that aim to provide a level playing field for the global economy and to provide transparency in settling conflicts.

 

Bibliography

The Ecologist. Criticism of World Trade Organisation. Retrieved August 25, 2008 from The Ecologist. Website: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2465/is_6_30/ai_65653637/pg_4?tag=artBody;col1

Anup Shah. The WTO and Free Trade. Retrieved August 25, 2008 from Global Issues. Website: http://www.globalissues.org/article/42/the-wto-and-free-trade.